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Oh, God, how simple everything turned out... in such complex, for a modern person, divine patterns in circles!
Image by Lucy Pringle
On the Eye of the Planet portal, points of view have already emerged, both regarding the information contained in the circle and regarding regret about wasting time over empty thoughts about the essence of the elegant patterned jokes of the Anglo-Saxons.
Image from www.cropcircleconnector.com
I will limit myself to these two photographs to understand what will be discussed.
It’s easy to understand what kind of circles they are by their appearance. It is more difficult to understand what those who draw them want to say with circles.
I called circle painters gods because they write and count like the gods who once served the Mayan tribes.
I might not have said anything if someone remembered the article
Two years have passed, not a very long time, but the “majestic” work has already been forgotten by the Cro-Magnons from the portal, but the Internet is great and people are looking at the traces of civilizations, which allows them to hope for the future.
It can be assumed that many of those who like to solve riddles in circles, looking at the new circles from England on June 9, experienced a state of deja vu - it seems that something like this has already happened in the fields.
But déjà vu is such an unsteady state - I seem to remember, but I don’t remember where, I remember something, but I forgot when and why, and therefore writers on the portal began to write about the lack of drawing skills among those who performed the drawings.
I confirm that there were circles. A small selection of circles with images on this topic is presented below
I like this circle:
but even larger, the following circle, with eight double circles and a separate small circle
I can’t imagine that there is a student team that is so monotonous in choosing the plot of the circles, with individual details that even a very great scientist cannot think of, the puzzles don’t fit. It is also impossible to imagine a government commando of circular businessmen operating for thousands of years around the world.
The fact is that many others may think differently.
Re-reading my opus from two years ago, dedicated to circles, I cannot help but note that, along with many inaccuracies, there is a general line that is confirmed by the passage of time. This line lies in the fact that in the given circle drawings, there is an object called Nibiru and in most circles the trajectory of the movement of celestial bodies is drawn.
The brilliant idea of the researcher of ancient texts Z. Sitchin about the importance of the planet Nibiru in the history of mankind, which he threw into the heads of the Cro-Magnons, its perception by a limited mind as the only existing version that explains all the illogicalities of the previous teachings of historians, played an evil role in trying to understand the texts of the circles.
She demonstrated how susceptible the human brain is to the dogma of truths expressed by science. She showed how difficult it is to break away from habitual and memorized rules that are accepted as truth, but are not
Over time, with the comprehension of new drawings, under the pressure of critics, new options for translating wheat images into human language naturally appear. However, they are still associated with the old topic - the presence in the Solar System of an extraneous celestial body, which appears once every 3600 years according to Z. Sitchin and after 3200 years according to Damkin, with the display of the trajectory of movement of celestial bodies organized into star-planetary systems.
In his articles he repeatedly addressed the topic of the importance of the duration of the precessional cycle for the ancients. As is known, it is ~ 25,600 Earth years. He noted in his articles that the frequency of global catastrophes on Earth occurs with a period of 12,800 years - equal to half the duration of the precessional cycle.
Moreover, here the precessional cycle, how it is connected with catastrophic phenomena on Earth, will become clearer in a few lines. Two years ago I could not understand the existence of such a connection. Little consolation for me is the fact that not only did they not understand on the portal, but the whole world still does not understand the presence of a correlation between the duration of the precessional cycle and apocalyptic phenomena on Earth.
In the myths of Sumer, Nibiru is mentioned; in ancient pictures there is an object that Z. Sitchin identified as the planet Nibiru. Some people who trust myths more than the statements of people who put on the scientific mantle took Z. Sitchin’s ideas as their own. I will call such people dreamers.
Some people who believe that facts and experience determine the reliability of the picture of the world classify Z. Sitchin’s ideas about Nibiru as fables that have no relation to reality. I will call these individuals pragmatists.
It is for this reason that pragmatists do not perceive not only information from circles, but also the circles themselves, as not worthy of their study, since all of them, according to pragmatists, are the goods of businessmen who extract money from jokes in the margins.
Dreamers, on the contrary, believe in Nibiru and see in every halo a messenger of the gods. I know what I’m saying - they are like that themselves!
Jumping from the thought of the planet Nibiru to the system “a brown dwarf with its own satellites, one of which is Nibiru” was as difficult as taking the next step - leaving the star system “dwarf - satellites-planets”. Come to the option that is shown in the figure of the last circle at the moment - 06/09/2012 - to a neutron star system, to a system of two stars.
In this option, a brown dwarf is not excluded; it may also be present in the planetary clusters of a neutron star, which we saw where it should be, according to the research of scientists - beyond Pluto. The dwarf, as well as other planets, may have their own moons, which are satellites like Jupiter.
Together with design engineer A. Noe, we tried to draw models of star systems based on the motifs of the drawings of the June circles.
Option one - double star system: neutron star - Sun, neutron star moves around the Sun.
Drawing by A. Noe
As soon as you try to visualize spaces the size of 1000 A.E., you stumble over the limited descriptive capabilities of combining distances and bodies that are incomparable in size in one drawing. Therefore, only diagrams are drawn, from which the thought that is transmitted in circles is also visible, so we think:
Drawing by A. Noe
In the models that we draw, we also need to convey the dynamics of the interaction of bodies in the system. We can accomplish this if we create movement - cinema - from static patterns.
Drawing by A. Noe
But how the messengers writing in circles manage to simultaneously express the expanses of infinity and movement in space in drawings on a plane is incomprehensible to the mind!
We put together the selected fragments and the drawing of the circle itself, which appeared on June 9, 2012, so that everything we want to say is before our eyes:
Everyone interested drew attention to the difference in details in the areas of Figure 1,2,3.
We counted the number of circles in zones A, B, C in each of the areas:
In circle 1 - zone A - three circles
In circle 1 - zone B - three circles
About zone C - separately.
We saw differences in the number of balls in the same zones of different areas 1,2,3, and I think that we were completely confused about what their creators wanted to say with the circles.
In circle 1 - 8 pieces, in circle 2 - 9 pieces, in circle 3 - 10. This number of circles is also confusing and we believe that it is impossible to create a logically coherent picture if we do not take into account information from earlier circles.
This figure indicates the number of planets that are included in the planetary system of the star. There are 8 planets plus a neutron star, one of the planets, either Nibiru, or the name of the star itself, is Nibiru. Moreover, the number of planets is written in Mayan arithmetic script, and not just in images.
If we assume that the dwarf star, which was remembered more than once, is rather not a dwarf, but a neutron star the size of an asteroid, then astrophysicists’ suspicions that behind Pluto there is currently an object of unknown nature that is causing disturbances in the movement of the planets of the solar system are confirmed by the drawings of circles. With this assumption, the information from the circle dated June 9, 2012 becomes clear.
The appearance of a brown dwarf in articles on circles arose to justify the possibility of maintaining the conditions necessary for the habitation of intelligent beings on a wandering planet in interstellar space. Indeed, after this version (k..hmm), NASA scientists have found many wandering star systems consisting of brown dwarfs and planets circling near them.
The next step in creating a version that eliminates the main criticism of critics - the lack of visibility of objects by any instruments that are used by earthlings to observe near-Earth space - is to “replace” the brown dwarf with a neutron star. This type of star is mentioned in the book “Star of the Apocalypse,” author V. A. Simonov .
However, the book “Star of the Apocalypse” belongs to the category of fantasy rather than popular science. Undoubtedly, a large amount of factual material has been collected on the mythology of the peoples of the world related to apocalyptic descriptions, but many modern interpretations are not convincing and logical enough.
But “Planets near neutron stars” http://universe-news.ru/article-996.html is not the fantasy of mythology lovers:
“The discovery of a planetary system of two planets near the pulsar PSR1257+12 in 1992, as well as a planet near the pulsar PSRJ2322+2057 in 1993, finally convinced astronomers of the existence of planets orbiting neutron stars.”
Image from www.cropcircleconnector.com, Barbury Castle, Nr Wroughton, Wiltshire. Reported 2nd July, 2011
In previous articles, answers were sought to the question: what could be that circle with a dot, which is drawn beyond the outskirts of the Solar system. In 2011, none of the authors writing on the topic of circles could offer anything intelligible.
Rodney Gomez helped, who with his doubts and findings alarmed the Internet and not only the Internet, but also astronomers.
“Rodney Gomez compared observations of the orbits of 92 objects in this belt and found that six of them were radically different from each other. The computer model persistently predicted less elongated orbits for them at different angles of inclination to the ecliptic plane. One of the most contradictory bodies to the model was Sedna, which since the day of its discovery has bothered scientists with its inexplicably huge distance from the Sun (it takes Sedna 11,400 years to complete one revolution around it).”
Its orbit is, to put it mildly, anomalous: it approaches a distance of up to 76 AU. e. (almost like Pluto), then it is removed up to 1,000 a.u. e.! This is the most elongated of the orbits of large celestial bodies, and it is indeed difficult to imagine a natural mechanism that could determine the stability of such an elongated trajectory. The entire Internet, and specifically:
“It takes 11,400 years to complete one revolution around the Sun.” Some astronomers think so, others call the period of Sedna’s revolution around the Sun equal to 10,500 years. It is clear that it is impossible to determine the exact figure for Sedna’s orbital period.
The second version of the binary star system model - the Sun moves around a neutron star:
Drawing by A. Noe
I will make an assumption that is not uttered by astronomers. They can't, they are scientists. We can. It takes 12,800 years to complete one revolution of the Sun around a neutron star.
It seemed strange that only in area 3 a circle was drawn, the way Nibiru is usually depicted, but taking into account the number of planets, which is written as a number from Mayan arithmetic, the puzzles came together and we saw an almost harmonious logical picture that they want to present to us. We think so.
An almost harmonious picture, since if the science of earthlings cannot see a neutron star, then for what reason its planets are not visible is not known. There are a great many options for fantastic plots, and all these versions will be down the drain, like the Big Bang theory, dark energy and all sorts of other physical models that are not verified by human practice.
The fact remains that the planets are not visible, but the circles persistently talk about them. A paradox that science cannot explain!
Behind Pluto, there is currently a neutron star, in its “captivity” are at least 7 planets, the passage of which through the Solar System is shown in three frames. Among the planets of a neutron star there may also be a brown dwarf with its own planets. Astrophysicists have not yet “seen” such star formations, but perhaps they will soon.
Frame one. Model
As a result of the mutual motion of two stars - the Sun and the neutron star, the planets of the Sun have approached the star system of the neutron star and are moving in space, crossing the ecliptic plane.
Drawing by A. Noe
As a result of the mutual motion of two stars - the Sun and a neutron star, the planets of the second star have approached the Solar System and are moving in space, crossing the ecliptic plane.
Taking into account the parallax of the image, it becomes clear that there is an antiphase in the wave of motion of the planets of the neutron star in region 2 compared to regions 1 and 3. Imagine that we are observers located outside the solar system, located perpendicular to the ecliptic plane. So to speak, a look from the outside at what is happening and will happen in the near future inside and next to the star Sun.
Drawing by A. Noe
With this look, the difference in the number of circles in zones A and B becomes clear. Some planets are covered by others.
Could it be so?
Note: The picture was created a day earlier than the photo of the circle in Italy from June 17 was published:
Image from www.cropcircleconnector.com, Santena, Poirino, June 17, 2012
The information in the circle is so easy for everyone to read that the idea of counterfeiting the circle pops up on its own.
How picky Cro-Magnons we are. Difficult to draw - bad - we don’t understand. If they draw simply, it means they are deceiving. We Cro-Magnons are like that.
From the Italian circle dated June 17, 2012, near the town of Santena, near Poirino, it follows that there is a triple star system.
The next cycle of revolution of two stars ends. The Sun and a wandering body, which may be a neutron star, revolving around a certain center, representing something very grandiose and having no analogues in astronomical speculation about triple star systems.
One can accept the version that the circle of the circle depicts a group of stars belonging to the constellation Cancer. On the left, in the circle next to the Cancer diagram, there is a very decent sized circle drawn, for which it is difficult to find a corresponding large star in the Cancer constellation.
There is also an option that the drawn cancer in a circle is not the constellation Cancer, but the constellation Orion. We, after all, constantly keep in mind a view of the sky from the Earth. Everyone is used to seeing this picture of the constellation Orion:
which is so different from the appearance of the constellation Cancer. However, it is worth changing the observer’s perspective and the constellation Orion appears similar to the pattern on the circle. Let's do this operation using Photoshop.
The brain virus believes that if you look at a slightly different degree, you can even calculate the point at which the observer is located, and even determine the name of the star that is wandering.
Frame two.
From the drawing of the circle on June 9, taking into account the location of the planets on one and the other side of the ecliptic, i.e. in front of the Sun and behind the Sun, the “eye” in the figure becomes clear - the phased origin of the planets, like Venus, against the background of the Sun. If we proceed from this figure, then there are (the largest) 5 planets that will “float” one after another across the Sun, and that will be visible from the Earth.
Drawing by A. Noe
If you follow the logic of the picture, then the planets alternately cross the plane of the ecliptic, floating out from behind the Sun and, one by one, visible against the background of the Sun. Planets can have satellites.
Image from www.cropcircleconnector.com, Silbury Hill (2), Avebury, Wiltshire, 13th June
The drawing of the next circle in time of creation, dated June 13, 2012, clearly confirms the version in which the position of celestial bodies is drawn relative to the ecliptic plane. Again, the plane created by the technological strip and color shades due to the difference in spectral radiation of different types of agricultural plants divides objects into zones located on opposite sides of the imaginary panel.
Drawing by A. Noe
Some of the most difficult tailed circle words to translate are words with questions
Let's start translating in order. “Ears” 1, petals 3, 4 show that these planets have their own force protection, i.e. planets have a magnetic field. Ears 1 are a continuation of the protective screen of that very large planet, or dwarf, which has a magnetic field - the wings of Nibiru.
Zone C is defined by a large circle, inside which there is one planet (you need to remember the ecliptic plane) and the Sun, against which the planet passes, and a satellite also passes against the background of the Sun and the planet. If you think about other circle designs, three spheres are common elements of circles.
Image by Lucy Pringle, Furze Knoll, Bishop Cannings, Wiltshire, Reported 6th August 2011
A circle with a plane is very symbolic. For many, this is not the plane of the ecliptic, but a wall that does not allow them to see the world hidden behind it.
No matter how hard the circle workers try to enlighten earthlings, they cannot reach the Cro-Magnon that the world around is not only a world of consumption, but is completely different from what the science of earthlings imagines.
A couple of questions remain unclear: what kind of objects are these infidels talking about? These couple of questions can change the appearance of the picture, the details will change, but the main plot remains unchanged
Answering that element 5 (with questions) is the Sun, we are thereby talking about five planets,
More recently, in the picture below, most Cro-Magnons saw a beetle or an all-seeing eye, which is so often used by lovers of secret societies.
but everything turned out to be so much more prosaic and clear that it even becomes a pity for the disappearing secret of the ancient Egyptian priests. They knew for sure that the all-seeing eye was just a diagram of the movement of planets in a complex star system, consisting of at least two stars and a number of planets exceeding the known number of planets of the Sun.
Frame three.
Astronomical science cannot currently explain where long-period comets come from and where they go on their space journey again. The presence of what interaction forces determines the orbit of a neutron star moving along an elongated ellipse approaching the sun at a distance of ~ 100 A.E. and moving away from it at a distance of ~ 1000 A.E? But it is obvious that an ellipse has two centers that form an ellipse. It is clear that an ellipsoidal orbit is a simplified model of the spiral motion of all components of the stellar system.
Is this what unknown draftsmen are trying to tell us with thousands of drawings in the margins?
For decades, no one knows who has been knocking on our door with vital information. Either WE ourselves, or aliens or inhabitants of other dimensions.
To reveal the essence of the messages, it is not so important who enlightens us. It is important that people wake up and begin to remember themselves.
The nature of the discussion of circle drawings has changed not only on the portal, but also on other platforms. The esoteric interpretation of the messages has practically disappeared from discussions. In the drawings, a meaning is sought, determined by the logic of the circle scenario.
Drawing by A. Noe
Even if Nibiru and the feathered serpent is a fantasy that has no relation to history and the real physical picture that is read to us from circles, another, very tiny step has been taken (much larger than the dubious step of humanity on the Moon) in self-knowledge by broad participation sensible people in solving the mystery of crop circles. Science is powerless, but we - People - are omnipotent if we start to wake up and think about those things that scientific snobs prefer not to talk about, so as not to sully their scientific name.
One of the statements taken from a discussion on the pages of the portal “eye of the planet” about a drawing of a circle from the Santena commune:
Karavaikin: “This drawing must be considered together with the drawing of July 2008, where the same cosmic date is drawn in the form of the structure of the planets.”
Precisely, it is advisable to consider them simultaneously. Then you can notice that the circle patterns differ from each other in that the observer looks at the system from different sides of the ecliptic plane.
In 2008, the Observer had not yet crossed the plane of the ecliptic and therefore this drawing on the margins in England looks like this
In 2012, in the fields patronized by St. Lawrence in Italy
From the pictures you can see the mirror image, the movement of the Observer, and this is the answer to the question:
"Fabio Bettinassi has sent us in this photo collage regarding the latest Italian crop circle with an interesting question for us to contemplate. Fabio"s text - "If that pattern suggest a planetary position, at 12-21-2012, I don"t understand why the Earth is in a wrong track. As you can see, Mars and Earth are in an inverted location. Why? Take a look.""
THEY observe the inner planets of the Solar System from the opposite side of the ecliptic plane.
I hope that lovers of accomplices will not be able to object to the repetition of information in two circles, in details that a Cro-Magnon man cannot even think about.
A few words about the triple star system.
As it turns out, astronomers admit the existence of triple systems, about which humanity knows so little, so the idea of the Sun entering such a star system is not even discussed not only by scientists, but also by dreamers.
However, crop circles forced us to create a model of such a system. Our attempt may be clumsy. In some way does not correspond to the physical data of observations. Likewise, astronomers do not have such data. Just guesses, for example:
The Kepler orbital telescope has made detailed observations of the triple system HD 181068, which was discovered in June last year. This system includes: a red giant (component A), as well as two red dwarfs (components B and C)."
According to astronomers, these triplets can become a kind of astrophysical laboratory for scientists that will help understand orbital interaction and the formation of stellar systems.
In our opinion, information from the circles can become a guide not only for astrophysicists, but also for the entire science of mankind, which will help to understand both the physical principles of interaction of the stars included in the system, and the history of the Earth and humanity.
Drawing by A. Noe
We do not insist on any version of the presented models. We schematically say that this can be the case if we follow the logic of the crop circle drawings...
Drawing by A. Noe
We tried to look at the solar system from the depths of space using the clues from the circulators. Agree that it must be a very difficult look if a person from our modern civilization did not protrude into space further than the Mir orbital station.
Drawing by A. Noe
Drawing by A. Noe
Drawing by A. Noe
Drawing by A. Noe
An attempt has been made to present flat images of circles in a three-dimensional form. A complete analogy cannot be made because there is not enough information. There is an element of imagination, but there really isn't that much fantasy. There is much more of it in circular images than is even shown in models of the triple system, from the point of view of pragmatists.
However, according to the visionaries, the circles depict reality, which science classifies as fiction. True, astronomers find a semblance of triple star systems, but they transfer the possibility of their coexistence to such distant abysses of space that the ordinary man in the street doesn’t care about the theoretical constructions of astrophysicists.
“Astronomers continue to explore the planetary system 55 Cancri, which is 40 light-years away and located in the constellation Cancer (HD 75732). To date, the system is the third in the number of confirmed exoplanets: five celestial bodies revolve around the star.” “Planetary system 55 Cancer and mysterious “inhabitants.” I. Terekhov.
Let us continue to quote excerpts from I. Terekhov’s article:
"The most distant planet from the star d e And f. One day on super-earth e lasts 17 hours 41 minutes. Its radius is 1.63 times and its mass is 8.6 times greater than that of Earth. Planet f, in turn, may turn out to be even more interesting. Its mass is 46 times that of Earth, and it makes one revolution around the star in 260 Earth days. Given that the planet is in the habitable zone 74% of the time, scientists suggest that water may exist on its surface.”
We miss the feature that the period around the star of the planet, which in no case is Nibiru, is 260 Earth days, just like the Tzolkin calendar. This is just a coincidence, but we pay attention to the size of the objects and remember the assumptions about the size of the dwarf in comparison with Jupiter, and the planet Nibiru with the Earth... and we also believe that this is a pure coincidence.
"The planet farthest from its star d has an orbital period longer than that of Jupiter. The most interesting of the five are the planets Cancri 55 e And f. One day on super-earth e lasts 17 hours 41 minutes."
Figure from the article www.3dnews.ru/news/623389
"Its radius is 1.63 times, and its mass is 8.6 times greater than that of Earth. The planet f, in turn, may turn out to be even more interesting. Its mass is 46 times that of Earth, and it makes one revolution around the star in 260 Earth days. Given that the planet is in the habitable zone 74% of the time, scientists suggest that water may exist on its surface."
Figure from the article www.3dnews.ru/news/623389
“Naturally, there is no question of any existence of life, in our classical understanding. However, scientists will continue to study the 55 Cancri planetary system more closely.” http://www.3dnews.ru/news/623389
Scientists are studying the planetary system of 55 Cancer, and we are studying star systems using images in circles. Maybe the time will come when the opinion of scientists and the opinion of tsareologists will coincide.
Many readers may not understand the term tsareology. From Latin, it is not translated as “royal booby”; rather, it symbolizes the inextricable connection of researchers with the earth and space, and even in some ways, it stands in solidarity with astronomers who claim “Naturally, about no existence of life, in the classical in our understanding, there is no question” on planets like Nibiru.
However, from the analysis of the discussion on the portal, you can see that we were all so carried away by the signs of the zodiac that we completely lost sight of the excellent knowledge and outline of the IMI signs. How do THEY know earthly astrology so well? Are THEY not the creators of the zodiac in very distant times, at the time when Nibiru first appeared in the solar system. One cannot assume that double and triple star systems are an imagination of the mind, and not a reality of the cosmos that has existed for billions of years.
However, it is advisable not to forget that the brain virus of the imagination can so master the mind of its carrier that even the simple solar system in which humanity lives is the fruit of a disease of the mind.
Drawing by A. Noe
Looking at the pattern of movement of planets and stars, which are interconnected by the laws of physics and the history of existence, we do not forget that in the simplicity that has been revealed to man, there are complex disagreements, even among the authors of the article. One of them is closer to the option in which guests approach the Earth from the constellation Cancer, since brain disease does not allow one to forget the period of 260 days. The second favorite option is to meet guests from the constellation Orion. Readers will have a third opinion, but a moment comes when the points of view of all those chewing begin to coincide with the fact that in circles they are talking about the approach of a galaxy of planets to the Sun, belonging not only to another star, but also to the Sun. The impossible may become possible in the very near future. Wait and see!
December 27, 2004, a burst of gamma rays arrived in our solar system from SGR 1806-20 (depicted in an artist's impression). The explosion was so powerful that it affected the Earth's atmosphere at a distance of over 50,000 light years
A neutron star is a cosmic body, which is one of the possible results of evolution, consisting mainly of a neutron core covered with a relatively thin (∼1 km) crust of matter in the form of heavy atomic nuclei and electrons. The masses of neutron stars are comparable to that of , but the typical radius of a neutron star is only 10-20 kilometers. Therefore, the average density of the substance of such an object is several times higher than the density of the atomic nucleus (which for heavy nuclei is on average 2.8·10 17 kg/m³). Further gravitational compression of the neutron star is prevented by the pressure of nuclear matter arising due to the interaction of neutrons.
Many neutron stars have extremely high rotation speeds, up to a thousand revolutions per second. Neutron stars arise from stellar explosions.
The masses of most neutron stars with reliably measured masses are 1.3-1.5 solar masses, which is close to the Chandrasekhar limit. Theoretically, neutron stars with masses from 0.1 to about 2.5 solar masses are acceptable, but the value of the upper limit mass is currently known very inaccurately. The most massive neutron stars known are Vela X-1 (with a mass of at least 1.88±0.13 solar masses at the 1σ level, which corresponds to a significance level of α≈34%), PSR J1614-2230ruen (with a mass estimate of 1.97 ±0.04 solar), and PSR J0348+0432ruen (with a mass estimate of 2.01±0.04 solar). Gravity in neutron stars is balanced by the pressure of the degenerate neutron gas; the maximum value of the mass of a neutron star is set by the Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit, the numerical value of which depends on the (still poorly known) equation of state of matter in the star's core. There are theoretical premises that with an even greater increase in density, the degeneration of neutron stars into quarks is possible.
The structure of a neutron star.
The magnetic field on the surface of neutron stars reaches a value of 10 12 -10 13 G (for comparison, the Earth has about 1 G), it is the processes in the magnetospheres of neutron stars that are responsible for the radio emission of pulsars. Since the 1990s, some neutron stars have been identified as magnetars - stars with magnetic fields of the order of 10 14 G and higher. Such magnetic fields (exceeding the “critical” value of 4.414 10 13 G, at which the energy of interaction of an electron with a magnetic field exceeds its rest energy mec²) introduce qualitatively new physics, since specific relativistic effects, polarization of the physical vacuum, etc. become significant.
By 2012, about 2000 neutron stars had been discovered. About 90% of them are single. In total, 10 8 -10 9 neutron stars can exist in ours, that is, about one per thousand ordinary stars. Neutron stars are characterized by high speed (usually hundreds of km/s). As a result of the accretion of cloud matter, the neutron star can be visible in this situation in different spectral ranges, including optical, which accounts for about 0.003% of the emitted energy (corresponding to magnitude 10).
Gravitational deflection of light (more than half of the surface is visible due to relativistic deflection of light)
Neutron stars are one of the few classes of cosmic objects that were theoretically predicted before their discovery by observers.
In 1933, astronomers Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky suggested that a neutron star could form as a result of a supernova explosion. Theoretical calculations at that time showed that the radiation from a neutron star was too weak to be detected. Interest in neutron stars intensified in the 1960s, when X-ray astronomy began to develop, as theory predicted that their thermal emission maximum would occur in the soft X-ray region. However, unexpectedly they were discovered in radio observations. In 1967, Jocelyn Bell, a graduate student of E. Huish, discovered objects emitting regular pulses of radio waves. This phenomenon was explained by the narrow directionality of the radio beam from a rapidly rotating object - a kind of “cosmic radio beacon”. But any ordinary star would collapse at such a high rotation speed. Only neutron stars were suitable for the role of such beacons. The pulsar PSR B1919+21 is believed to be the first neutron star discovered.
The interaction of a neutron star with the surrounding matter is determined by two main parameters and, as a consequence, their observable manifestations: the period (speed) of rotation and the magnitude of the magnetic field. Over time, the star uses up its rotational energy and its rotation slows down. The magnetic field also weakens. For this reason, a neutron star can change its type during its life. Below is the nomenclature of neutron stars in descending order of rotation speed, according to the monograph by V.M. Lipunova. Because the theory of pulsar magnetospheres is still evolving, alternative theoretical models exist.
Strong magnetic fields and short rotation period. In the simplest model of the magnetosphere, the magnetic field rotates solidly, that is, with the same angular velocity as the body of the neutron star. At a certain radius, the linear speed of rotation of the field approaches the speed of light. This radius is called the "light cylinder radius". Beyond this radius, an ordinary dipole field cannot exist, so the field strength lines break off at this point. Charged particles moving along magnetic field lines can leave the neutron star through such cliffs and fly into interstellar space. A neutron star of this type “ejects” (from the French éjecter - to eject, push out) relativistic charged particles that emit in the radio range. Ejectors are observed as radio pulsars.
Propeller
The rotation speed is no longer sufficient for the ejection of particles, so such a star cannot be a radio pulsar. However, the rotation speed is still high, and the matter surrounding the neutron star captured by the magnetic field cannot fall, that is, accretion of matter does not occur. Neutron stars of this type have virtually no observable manifestations and are poorly studied.
Accrector (X-ray pulsar)
The rotation speed is reduced to such a level that nothing now prevents matter from falling onto such a neutron star. The falling matter, already in the state of plasma, moves along the magnetic field lines and hits the solid surface of the neutron star’s body in the region of its poles, heating up to tens of millions of degrees. Matter heated to such high temperatures glows brightly in the X-ray range. The region in which the collision of falling matter with the surface of the neutron star body occurs is very small - only about 100 meters. Due to the rotation of the star, this hot spot periodically disappears from view, and regular pulsations of X-ray radiation are observed. Such objects are called X-ray pulsars.
Georotator
The rotation speed of such neutron stars is low and does not prevent accretion. But the size of the magnetosphere is such that the plasma is stopped by the magnetic field before it is captured by gravity. A similar mechanism operates in the Earth’s magnetosphere, which is why this type of neutron star got its name.
Magnetar
A neutron star with an exceptionally strong magnetic field (up to 10 11 T). The theoretical existence of magnetars was predicted in 1992, and the first evidence of their real existence was obtained in 1998 when observing a powerful burst of gamma-ray and X-ray radiation from the source SGR 1900+14 in the constellation Aquila. The lifetime of magnetars is about 1,000,000 years. Magnetars have the strongest magnetic field in .
Magnetars are a little-studied type of neutron star due to the fact that few are close enough to Earth. Magnetars are about 20-30 km in diameter, but most have masses greater than the mass of the Sun. The magnetar is so compressed that a pea of its matter would weigh more than 100 million tons. Most of the known magnetars rotate very quickly, at least several rotations around their axis per second. Observed in gamma radiation close to X-rays, it does not emit radio emission. The life cycle of a magnetar is quite short. Their strong magnetic fields disappear after about 10,000 years, after which their activity and emission of X-rays cease. According to one assumption, up to 30 million magnetars could have formed in our galaxy during its entire existence. Magnetars are formed from massive stars with an initial mass of about 40 M☉.
The shocks generated on the surface of the magnetar cause huge vibrations in the star; the fluctuations in the magnetic field that accompany them often lead to huge bursts of gamma radiation, which were recorded on Earth in 1979, 1998 and 2004.
As of May 2007, twelve magnetars were known, with three more candidates awaiting confirmation. Examples of known magnetars:
SGR 1806-20, located 50,000 light-years from Earth on the opposite side of our Milky Way galaxy in the constellation Sagittarius.
SGR 1900+14, 20,000 light years distant, located in the constellation Aquila. After a long period of low emissions (significant explosions only in 1979 and 1993), it became active in May-August 1998, and the explosion detected on August 27, 1998 was of sufficient force to force the NEAR Shoemaker spacecraft to be shut down to prevent damage. On May 29, 2008, NASA's Spitzer telescope discovered rings of matter around this magnetar. It is believed that this ring was formed by an explosion observed in 1998.
1E 1048.1-5937 is an anomalous X-ray pulsar located 9000 light years away in the constellation Carina. The star from which the magnetar formed had a mass 30-40 times greater than that of the Sun.
A complete list is given in the magnetar catalog.
As of September 2008, ESO reports the identification of an object initially thought to be a magnetar, SWIFT J195509+261406; it was originally identified by gamma-ray bursts (GRB 070610)
Neutron stars, often called “dead” stars, are amazing objects. Their study in recent decades has become one of the most fascinating and discovery-rich areas of astrophysics. Interest in neutron stars is due not only to the mystery of their structure, but also to their colossal density and strong magnetic and gravitational fields. The matter there is in a special state, reminiscent of a huge atomic nucleus, and these conditions cannot be reproduced in earthly laboratories.
Birth at the tip of a pen
The discovery of a new elementary particle, the neutron, in 1932 led astrophysicists to wonder what role it might play in the evolution of stars. Two years later, it was suggested that supernova explosions are associated with the transformation of ordinary stars into neutron stars. Then calculations were made of the structure and parameters of the latter, and it became clear that if small stars (like our Sun) at the end of their evolution turn into white dwarfs, then heavier ones become neutron ones. In August 1967, radio astronomers, while studying the flickering of cosmic radio sources, discovered strange signals: very short, lasting about 50 milliseconds, pulses of radio emission were recorded, repeated at a strictly defined time interval (of the order of one second). This was completely different from the usual chaotic picture of random irregular fluctuations in radio emission. After a thorough check of all the equipment, we became confident that the pulses were of extraterrestrial origin. It is difficult for astronomers to be surprised by objects emitting with variable intensity, but in this case the period was so short and the signals were so regular that scientists seriously suggested that they could be news from extraterrestrial civilizations.
Therefore, the first pulsar was named LGM-1 (from the English Little Green Men “Little Green Men”), although attempts to find any meaning in the received pulses ended in vain. Soon, 3 more pulsating radio sources were discovered. Their period again turned out to be much less than the characteristic times of vibration and rotation of all known astronomical objects. Due to the pulsed nature of the radiation, new objects began to be called pulsars. This discovery literally shook up astronomy, and reports of pulsar detections began to arrive from many radio observatories. After the discovery of a pulsar in the Crab Nebula, which arose due to a supernova explosion in 1054 (this star was visible during the day, as the Chinese, Arabs and North Americans mention in their annals), it became clear that pulsars are somehow related to supernova explosions .
Most likely, the signals came from an object left after the explosion. It took a long time before astrophysicists realized that pulsars were the rapidly rotating neutron stars they had been looking for for so long.
Crab Nebula
The outbreak of this supernova (photo above), sparkling in the earth's sky brighter than Venus and visible even during the day, occurred in 1054 according to earth clocks. Almost 1,000 years is a very short period of time by cosmic standards, and yet during this time the beautiful Crab Nebula managed to form from the remains of the exploding star. This image is a composition of two pictures: one of them was obtained by the Hubble Space Optical Telescope (shades of red), the other by the Chandra X-ray telescope (blue). It is clearly seen that high-energy electrons emitting in the X-ray range very quickly lose their energy, so blue colors prevail only in the central part of the nebula.
Combining two images helps to more accurately understand the mechanism of operation of this amazing cosmic generator, emitting electromagnetic oscillations of the widest frequency range - from gamma quanta to radio waves. Although most neutron stars have been detected by radio emission, they emit the bulk of their energy in the gamma-ray and x-ray ranges. Neutron stars are born very hot, but cool quickly enough, and already at a thousand years of age they have a surface temperature of about 1,000,000 K. Therefore, only young neutron stars shine in the X-ray range due to purely thermal radiation.
Pulsar physics
A pulsar is simply a huge magnetized top spinning around an axis that does not coincide with the axis of the magnet. If nothing fell on it and it did not emit anything, then its radio emission would have a rotational frequency and we would never hear it on Earth. But the fact is that this top has a colossal mass and a high surface temperature, and the rotating magnetic field creates a huge electric field, capable of accelerating protons and electrons almost to the speed of light. Moreover, all these charged particles rushing around the pulsar are trapped in its colossal magnetic field. And only within a small solid angle about the magnetic axis they can break free (neutron stars have the strongest magnetic fields in the Universe, reaching 10 10 10 14 gauss, for comparison: the earth’s field is 1 gauss, the solar one 10 50 gauss) . It is these streams of charged particles that are the source of the radio emission from which pulsars were discovered, which later turned out to be neutron stars. Since the magnetic axis of a neutron star does not necessarily coincide with the axis of its rotation, when the star rotates, a stream of radio waves propagates through space like the beam of a flashing beacon, only momentarily cutting through the surrounding darkness.
X-ray images of the Crab Nebula pulsar in its active (left) and normal (right) states
nearest neighbor
This pulsar is located only 450 light years from Earth and is a binary system of a neutron star and a white dwarf with an orbital period of 5.5 days. The soft X-ray radiation received by the ROSAT satellite is emitted by the polar ice caps PSR J0437-4715, which are heated to two million degrees. During its rapid rotation (the period of this pulsar is 5.75 milliseconds), it turns toward the Earth with one or the other magnetic pole, as a result, the intensity of the gamma ray flux changes by 33%. The bright object next to the small pulsar is a distant galaxy that, for some reason, actively glows in the X-ray region of the spectrum.
Almighty Gravity
According to modern evolutionary theory, massive stars end their lives in a colossal explosion, turning most of them into an expanding nebula of gas. As a result, what remains from a giant many times larger than our Sun in size and mass is a dense hot object about 20 km in size, with a thin atmosphere (of hydrogen and heavier ions) and a gravitational field 100 billion times greater than that of the Earth. It was called a neutron star, believing that it consists mainly of neutrons. Neutron star matter is the densest form of matter (a teaspoon of such a supernucleus weighs about a billion tons). The very short period of signals emitted by pulsars was the first and most important argument in favor of the fact that these are neutron stars, possessing a huge magnetic field and rotating at breakneck speed. Only dense and compact objects (only a few tens of kilometers in size) with a powerful gravitational field can withstand such a rotation speed without falling into pieces due to centrifugal inertial forces.
A neutron star consists of a neutron liquid mixed with protons and electrons. “Nuclear liquid,” which closely resembles the substance of atomic nuclei, is 1014 times denser than ordinary water. This huge difference is understandable, since atoms consist mostly of empty space, in which light electrons flit around a tiny, heavy nucleus. The nucleus contains almost all the mass, since protons and neutrons are 2,000 times heavier than electrons. The extreme forces generated by the formation of a neutron star compress the atoms so much that the electrons squeezed into the nuclei combine with protons to form neutrons. In this way, a star is born, consisting almost entirely of neutrons. The super-dense nuclear liquid, if brought to Earth, would explode like a nuclear bomb, but in a neutron star it is stable due to the enormous gravitational pressure. However, in the outer layers of a neutron star (as, indeed, of all stars), pressure and temperature drop, forming a solid crust about a kilometer thick. It is believed to consist mainly of iron nuclei.
Flash
The colossal X-ray flare of March 5, 1979, it turns out, occurred far beyond our Galaxy, in the Large Magellanic Cloud, a satellite of our Milky Way, located at a distance of 180 thousand light years from Earth. Joint processing of the gamma-ray burst on March 5, recorded by seven spacecraft, made it possible to quite accurately determine the position of this object, and the fact that it is located precisely in the Magellanic Cloud is today practically beyond doubt.
The event that happened on this distant star 180 thousand years ago is difficult to imagine, but it flashed then like 10 supernovae, more than 10 times the luminosity of all the stars in our Galaxy. The bright dot at the top of the figure is a long-known and well-known SGR pulsar, and the irregular outline is the most likely position of the object that flared up on March 5, 1979.
Origin of the neutron star
A supernova explosion is simply the transition of part of the gravitational energy into heat. When an old star runs out of fuel and the thermonuclear reaction can no longer heat its interior to the required temperature, a collapse of the gas cloud occurs at its center of gravity. The energy released in this process scatters the outer layers of the star in all directions, forming an expanding nebula. If the star is small, like our Sun, then an outburst occurs and a white dwarf is formed. If the mass of the star is more than 10 times that of the Sun, then such a collapse leads to a supernova explosion and an ordinary neutron star is formed. If a supernova erupts in the place of a very large star, with a mass of 20 x 40 solar, and a neutron star with a mass of more than three solar is formed, then the process of gravitational compression becomes irreversible and a black hole is formed.
Internal structure
The solid crust of the outer layers of a neutron star consists of heavy atomic nuclei arranged in a cubic lattice, with electrons flying freely between them, which is reminiscent of terrestrial metals, but only much denser.
Open question
Although neutron stars have been intensively studied for about three decades, their internal structure is not known for certain. Moreover, there is no firm certainty that they really consist mainly of neutrons. As you move deeper into the star, pressure and density increase and matter can be so compressed that it breaks down into quarks - the building blocks of protons and neutrons. According to modern quantum chromodynamics, quarks cannot exist in a free state, but are combined into inseparable “threes” and “twos”. But perhaps, at the boundary of the inner core of a neutron star, the situation changes and the quarks break out of their confinement. To further understand the nature of a neutron star and exotic quark matter, astronomers need to determine the relationship between the star's mass and its radius (average density). By studying neutron stars with satellites, it is possible to measure their mass quite accurately, but determining their diameter is much more difficult. More recently, scientists using the XMM-Newton X-ray satellite have found a way to estimate the density of neutron stars based on gravitational redshift. Another unusual thing about neutron stars is that as the mass of the star decreases, its radius increases; as a result, the most massive neutron stars have the smallest size.
Black Widow
The explosion of a supernova quite often imparts considerable speed to a newborn pulsar. Such a flying star with a decent magnetic field of its own greatly disturbs the ionized gas filling interstellar space. A kind of shock wave is formed, running in front of the star and diverging into a wide cone after it. The combined optical (blue-green part) and X-ray (shades of red) image shows that here we are dealing not just with a luminous gas cloud, but with a huge stream of elementary particles emitted by this millisecond pulsar. The linear speed of the Black Widow is 1 million km/h, it rotates around its axis in 1.6 ms, it is already about a billion years old, and it has a companion star circling around the Widow with a period of 9.2 hours. The pulsar B1957+20 received its name for the simple reason that its powerful radiation simply burns its neighbor, causing the gas that forms it to “boil” and evaporate. The red cigar-shaped cocoon behind the pulsar is the part of space where the electrons and protons emitted by the neutron star emit soft gamma rays.
The result of computer modeling makes it possible to very clearly, in cross-section, present the processes occurring near a fast-flying pulsar. The rays diverging from a bright point are a conventional image of the flow of radiant energy, as well as the flow of particles and antiparticles that emanates from a neutron star. The red outline at the border of the black space around the neutron star and the red glowing clouds of plasma is the place where the stream of relativistic particles flying almost at the speed of light meets the interstellar gas compacted by the shock wave. By braking sharply, the particles emit X-rays and, having lost most of their energy, no longer heat up the incident gas so much.
Cramp of the Giants
Pulsars are considered one of the early stages of the life of a neutron star. Thanks to their study, scientists learned about magnetic fields, the speed of rotation, and the further fate of neutron stars. By constantly monitoring the behavior of a pulsar, one can determine exactly how much energy it loses, how much it slows down, and even when it will cease to exist, having slowed down so much that it cannot emit powerful radio waves. These studies confirmed many theoretical predictions about neutron stars.
Already by 1968, pulsars with a rotation period from 0.033 seconds to 2 seconds were discovered. The periodicity of the radio pulsar pulses is maintained with amazing accuracy, and at first the stability of these signals was higher than the earth's atomic clocks. And yet, with progress in the field of time measurement, it was possible to register regular changes in their periods for many pulsars. Of course, these are extremely small changes, and only over millions of years can we expect the period to double. The ratio of the current rotation speed to the rotation deceleration is one of the ways to estimate the age of the pulsar. Despite the remarkable stability of the radio signal, some pulsars sometimes experience so-called "disturbances." In a very short time interval (less than 2 minutes), the rotation speed of the pulsar increases by a significant amount, and then after some time returns to the value that was before the “disturbance.” It is believed that the “disturbances” may be caused by a rearrangement of mass within the neutron star. But in any case, the exact mechanism is still unknown.
Thus, the Vela pulsar undergoes large “disturbances” approximately every 3 years, and this makes it a very interesting object for studying such phenomena.
Magnetars
Some neutron stars, called repeating soft gamma ray burst sources (SGRs), emit powerful bursts of "soft" gamma rays at irregular intervals. The amount of energy emitted by an SGR in a typical flare lasting a few tenths of a second can only be emitted by the Sun in a whole year. Four known SGRs are located within our Galaxy and only one is outside it. These incredible explosions of energy can be caused by starquakes - powerful versions of earthquakes when the solid surface of neutron stars is torn apart and powerful streams of protons burst from their depths, which, stuck in a magnetic field, emit gamma and X-ray radiation. Neutron stars were identified as sources of powerful gamma-ray bursts after the huge gamma-ray burst on March 5, 1979, released as much energy in the first second as the Sun emits in 1,000 years. Recent observations of one of the most active neutron stars currently appear to support the theory that irregular, powerful bursts of gamma and X-ray radiation are caused by starquakes.
In 1998, the famous SGR suddenly woke up from its “slumber,” which had shown no signs of activity for 20 years and splashed out almost as much energy as the gamma-ray flare of March 5, 1979. What struck the researchers most when observing this event was the sharp slowdown in the speed of rotation of the star, indicating its destruction. To explain powerful gamma-ray and X-ray flares, a magnetar-neutron star model with a superstrong magnetic field was proposed. If a neutron star is born spinning very quickly, then the combined influence of rotation and convection, which plays an important role in the first few seconds of the neutron star's life, can create a huge magnetic field through a complex process known as an "active dynamo" (the same way the field is created inside the Earth and the Sun). Theorists were amazed to discover that such a dynamo, operating in a hot, newborn neutron star, could create a magnetic field 10,000 times stronger than the normal field of pulsars. When the star cools (after 10 or 20 seconds), convection and the action of the dynamo stop, but this time is enough for the necessary field to arise.
The magnetic field of a rotating electrically conducting ball can be unstable, and a sharp restructuring of its structure can be accompanied by the release of colossal amounts of energy (a clear example of such instability is the periodic transfer of the Earth’s magnetic poles). Similar things happen on the Sun, in explosive events called "solar flares." In a magnetar, the available magnetic energy is enormous, and this energy is quite enough to power such giant flares as March 5, 1979 and August 27, 1998. Such events inevitably cause deep disruption and changes in the structure of not only electrical currents in the volume of the neutron star, but also its solid crust. Another mysterious type of object that emits powerful X-ray radiation during periodic explosions is the so-called anomalous X-ray pulsarsAXP. They differ from ordinary X-ray pulsars in that they emit only in the X-ray range. Scientists believe that SGR and AXP are phases of the life of the same class of objects, namely magnetars, or neutron stars, which emit soft gamma rays by drawing energy from a magnetic field. And although magnetars today remain the brainchild of theorists and there is not enough data confirming their existence, astronomers are persistently searching for the necessary evidence.
Magnetar candidates
Astronomers have already studied our home galaxy, the Milky Way, so thoroughly that it costs them nothing to depict its side view, indicating the position of the most remarkable of the neutron stars.
Scientists believe that AXP and SGR are simply two stages in the life of the same giant magnet neutron star. For the first 10,000 years, the magnetar is an SGR pulsar, visible in ordinary light and producing repeated bursts of soft X-ray radiation, and for the next millions of years it, like an anomalous AXP pulsar, disappears from the visible range and puffs only in the X-ray.
The strongest magnet
Analysis of data obtained by the RXTE satellite (Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, NASA) during observations of the unusual pulsar SGR 1806-20 showed that this source is the most powerful magnet known to date in the Universe. The magnitude of its field was determined not only on the basis of indirect data (from the slowing down of the pulsar), but also almost directly from measuring the rotation frequency of protons in the magnetic field of the neutron star. The magnetic field near the surface of this magnetar reaches 10 15 gauss. If it were, for example, in the orbit of the Moon, all magnetic storage media on our Earth would be demagnetized. True, taking into account the fact that its mass is approximately equal to that of the Sun, this would no longer matter, since even if the Earth had not fallen on this neutron star, it would have been spinning around it like crazy, making a full revolution in just an hour.
Active dynamo
We all know that energy loves to change from one form to another. Electricity easily turns into heat, and kinetic energy into potential energy. Huge convective flows of electrically conductive magma, plasma or nuclear matter, it turns out, can also convert their kinetic energy into something unusual, for example, into a magnetic field. The movement of large masses on a rotating star in the presence of a small initial magnetic field can lead to electric currents that create a field in the same direction as the original one. As a result, an avalanche-like increase in the own magnetic field of a rotating current-conducting object begins. The greater the field, the greater the currents, the greater the currents, the greater the field and all this is due to banal convective flows, due to the fact that a hot substance is lighter than a cold one, and therefore floats up
Troubled neighborhood
The famous Chandra space observatory has discovered hundreds of objects (including in other galaxies), indicating that not all neutron stars are destined to lead a solitary life. Such objects are born in binary systems that survived the supernova explosion that created the neutron star. And sometimes it happens that single neutron stars in dense stellar regions such as globular clusters capture a companion. In this case, the neutron star will “steal” matter from its neighbor. And depending on how massive the star is to accompany it, this “theft” will cause different consequences. Gas flowing from a companion with a mass less than that of our Sun onto such a “crumb” as a neutron star cannot immediately fall due to its own angular momentum being too large, so it creates a so-called accretion disk around it from the “stolen » matter. Friction as it wraps around the neutron star and compression in the gravitational field heats the gas to millions of degrees, and it begins to emit X-rays. Another interesting phenomenon associated with neutron stars that have a low-mass companion is X-ray bursts. They usually last from several seconds to several minutes and at maximum give the star a luminosity almost 100 thousand times greater than the luminosity of the Sun.
These flares are explained by the fact that when hydrogen and helium are transferred to the neutron star from the companion, they form a dense layer. Gradually, this layer becomes so dense and hot that a thermonuclear fusion reaction begins and a huge amount of energy is released. In terms of power, this is equivalent to the explosion of the entire nuclear arsenal of earthlings on every square centimeter of the surface of a neutron star within a minute. A completely different picture is observed if the neutron star has a massive companion. The giant star loses matter in the form of stellar wind (a stream of ionized gas emanating from its surface), and the enormous gravity of the neutron star captures some of this matter. But here the magnetic field comes into its own, causing the falling matter to flow along the lines of force towards the magnetic poles.
This means that X-ray radiation is primarily generated at hot spots at the poles, and if the magnetic axis and the rotation axis of the star do not coincide, then the brightness of the star turns out to be variable - it is also a pulsar, but only an X-ray one. Neutron stars in X-ray pulsars have bright giant stars as companions. In bursters, the companions of neutron stars are faint, low-mass stars. The age of bright giants does not exceed several tens of millions of years, while the age of faint dwarf stars can be billions of years old, since the former consume their nuclear fuel much faster than the latter. It follows that bursters are old systems in which the magnetic field has weakened over time, while pulsars are relatively young, and therefore the magnetic fields in them are stronger. Perhaps bursters pulsated at some point in the past, but pulsars are yet to burst in the future.
Pulsars with the shortest periods (less than 30 milliseconds)—the so-called millisecond pulsars—are also associated with binary systems. Despite their rapid rotation, they turn out to be not the youngest, as one would expect, but the oldest.
They arise from binary systems where an old, slowly rotating neutron star begins to absorb matter from its also aged companion (usually a red giant). As matter falls onto the surface of a neutron star, it transfers rotational energy to it, causing it to spin faster and faster. This happens until the neutron star's companion, almost freed of excess mass, becomes a white dwarf, and the pulsar comes to life and begins to rotate at a speed of hundreds of revolutions per second. However, recently astronomers discovered a very unusual system, where the companion of a millisecond pulsar is not a white dwarf, but a giant bloated red star. Scientists believe that they are observing this binary system just at the stage of “liberating” the red star from excess weight and turning into a white dwarf. If this hypothesis is incorrect, then the companion star could be an ordinary globular cluster star accidentally captured by a pulsar. Almost all neutron stars that are currently known are found either in X-ray binaries or as single pulsars.
And recently, Hubble noticed in visible light a neutron star, which is not a component of a binary system and does not pulsate in the X-ray and radio range. This provides a unique opportunity to accurately determine its size and make adjustments to ideas about the composition and structure of this bizarre class of burnt-out, gravitationally compressed stars. This star was first discovered as an X-ray source and emits in this range not because it collects hydrogen gas as it moves through space, but because it is still young. It may be the remnant of one of the stars in the binary system. As a result of a supernova explosion, this binary system collapsed and the former neighbors began an independent journey through the Universe.
Baby star eater
Just as stones fall to the ground, so a large star, releasing bits of its mass, gradually moves to a small and distant neighbor, which has a huge gravitational field near its surface. If the stars did not revolve around a common center of gravity, then the gas stream could simply flow, like a stream of water from a mug, onto a small neutron star. But since the stars swirl in a circle, the falling matter must lose most of its angular momentum before it reaches the surface. And here, the mutual friction of particles moving along different trajectories and the interaction of the ionized plasma forming the accretion disk with the magnetic field of the pulsar help the process of matter fall to successfully end with an impact on the surface of the neutron star in the region of its magnetic poles.
Riddle 4U2127 solved
This star has been fooling astronomers for more than 10 years, showing strange slow variability in its parameters and flaring up differently each time. Only the latest research from the Chandra space observatory has made it possible to unravel the mysterious behavior of this object. It turned out that these were not one, but two neutron stars. Moreover, both of them have companions: one star is similar to our Sun, the other is like a small blue neighbor. Spatially, these pairs of stars are separated by a fairly large distance and live an independent life. But on the stellar sphere they are projected to almost the same point, which is why they were considered one object for so long. These four stars are located in the globular cluster M15 at a distance of 34 thousand light years.
Open question
In total, astronomers have discovered about 1,200 neutron stars to date. Of these, more than 1,000 are radio pulsars, and the rest are simply X-ray sources. Over the years of research, scientists have come to the conclusion that neutron stars are real originals. Some are very bright and calm, others periodically flare up and change with starquakes, and others exist in binary systems. These stars are among the most mysterious and elusive astronomical objects, combining the strongest gravitational and magnetic fields and extreme densities and energies. And each new discovery from their turbulent life gives scientists unique information necessary to understand the nature of Matter and the evolution of the Universe.
Universal standard
It is very difficult to send something outside the solar system, so together with the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft that headed there 30 years ago, earthlings also sent messages to their brothers in mind. To draw something that will be understandable to the Extraterrestrial Mind is not an easy task; moreover, it was also necessary to indicate the return address and the date of sending the letter... How clearly the artists were able to do all this is difficult for a person to understand, but the very idea of using radio pulsars for indicating the place and time of sending the message is brilliant. Intermittent rays of various lengths emanating from a point symbolizing the Sun indicate the direction and distance to the pulsars closest to the Earth, and the intermittency of the line is nothing more than a binary designation of their period of revolution. The longest beam points to the center of our Galaxy Milky Way. The frequency of the radio signal emitted by a hydrogen atom when the mutual orientation of the spins (direction of rotation) of the proton and electron changes is taken as the unit of time in the message.
The famous 21 cm or 1420 MHz should be known to all intelligent beings in the Universe. Using these landmarks, pointing to the “radio beacons” of the Universe, it will be possible to find earthlings even after many millions of years, and by comparing the recorded frequency of pulsars with the current one, it will be possible to estimate when these man and woman blessed the flight of the first spaceship that left the solar system.
Nikolay Andreev
Neutron stars concept
The concept of neutron stars is not new: the first suggestion about the possibility of their existence was made by talented astronomers Fritz Zwicky and Walter Baarde from California in 1934. (Somewhat earlier, in 1932, the possibility of the existence of neutron stars was predicted by the famous Soviet scientist L.D. Landau.) In the late 30s, it became the subject of research by other American scientists Oppenheimer and Volkov. The interest of these physicists in this problem was caused by the desire to determine the final stage of evolution of a massive contracting star. Since the role and significance of supernovae were discovered around the same time, it was suggested that the neutron star could be the remnant of a supernova explosion. Unfortunately, with the outbreak of World War II, the attention of scientists turned to military needs and detailed study of these new and highly mysterious objects was suspended. Then, in the 50s, the study of neutron stars was resumed purely theoretically in order to determine whether they were related to the problem of the birth of chemical elements in the central regions of stars.remain the only astrophysical object whose existence and properties were predicted long before their discovery.
In the early 1960s, the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources provided great encouragement to those considering neutron stars as possible sources of celestial X-rays. By the end of 1967 A new class of celestial objects was discovered - pulsars, which left scientists confused. This discovery was the most important development in the study of neutron stars, as it again raised the question of the origin of cosmic X-ray radiation. Speaking about neutron stars, it should be taken into account that their physical characteristics are established theoretically and are very hypothetical, since the physical conditions existing in these bodies cannot be reproduced in laboratory experiments.
Properties of neutron stars
Gravitational forces have a decisive influence on the properties of neutron stars. According to various estimates, the diameters of neutron stars are 10-200 km. And this volume, insignificant in cosmic terms, is “filled” with such an amount of matter that can make up a celestial body like the Sun, with a diameter of about 1.5 million km, and a mass almost a third of a million times heavier than the Earth! A natural consequence of this concentration of matter is the incredibly high density of the neutron star. In fact, it turns out to be so dense that it can even be solid. The gravity of a neutron star is so great that a person would weigh about a million tons there. Calculations show that neutron stars are highly magnetized. It is estimated that the magnetic field of a neutron star can reach 1 million. million gauss, whereas on Earth it is 1 gauss. Neutron star radius is assumed to be about 15 km, and the mass is about 0.6 - 0.7 solar masses. The outer layer is a magnetosphere, consisting of rarefied electron and nuclear plasma, which is penetrated by the powerful magnetic field of the star. This is where the radio signals that are the hallmark of pulsars originate. Ultrafast charged particles, moving in spirals along magnetic field lines, give rise to various types of radiation. In some cases, radiation occurs in the radio range of the electromagnetic spectrum, in others - radiation at high frequencies.Neutron star density
Almost immediately under the magnetosphere, the density of the substance reaches 1 t/cm3, which is 100,000 times greater than the density of iron. The next layer after the outer layer has the characteristics of metal. This layer of “superhard” substance is in crystalline form. The crystals consist of nuclei of atoms with atomic masses 26 - 39 and 58 - 133. These crystals are extremely small: to cover a distance of 1 cm, about 10 billion crystals need to be lined up in one line. The density in this layer is more than 1 million times higher than in the outer layer, or otherwise, 400 billion times higher than the density of iron.Moving further towards the center of the star, we cross the third layer. It includes a region of heavy nuclei such as cadmium, but is also rich in neutrons and electrons. The density of the third layer is 1,000 times greater than the previous one. Penetrating deeper into the neutron star, we reach the fourth layer, and the density increases slightly - about five times. However, at such a density, the nuclei can no longer maintain their physical integrity: they decay into neutrons, protons and electrons. Most of the matter is in the form of neutrons. There are 8 neutrons for every electron and proton. This layer, in essence, can be considered as a neutron liquid, “contaminated” with electrons and protons. Below this layer is the core of the neutron star. Here the density is approximately 1.5 times greater than in the overlying layer. And yet, even such a small increase in density leads to the fact that particles in the core move much faster than in any other layer. The kinetic energy of motion of neutrons mixed with a small number of protons and electrons is so great that inelastic collisions of particles constantly occur. In collision processes, all particles and resonances known in nuclear physics are born, of which there are more than a thousand. In all likelihood, there are a large number of particles not yet known to us.
Neutron star temperature
The temperatures of neutron stars are relatively high. This is to be expected given how they arise. During the first 10 - 100 thousand years of the star's existence, the temperature of the core decreases to several hundred million degrees. Then a new phase begins when the temperature of the star's core slowly decreases due to the emission of electromagnetic radiation.The SWASI phenomenon is an analogue of the SASI instability occurring at the core of a supernova, but it is one million times smaller and 100 times slower than its astrophysical counterpart. Photo credit: Thierry Foglizzo, Laboratoire AIM Paris-Saclay, CEA.
- this is one of the most powerful and cruel. Now a team of researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics is taking a very specialized look at the formation of neutron stars at the center of collapsing stars. Through the use of sophisticated computer modeling, they were able to create three-dimensional models that show the physical impact - the intense and violent movements that occur when stellar matter is pulled inward. It's a bold new look at the dynamics that are happening.
As we know, stars that have 8-10 times the mass are doomed to end their lives in a massive explosion, gases blown into space with incredible force. These catastrophic events are among the brightest and most powerful events in the world and can overshadow them when they occur. This is the very process that creates the elements essential to life as we know it - and the beginning.
Neutron stars are a mystery in themselves. These very compact stellar remnants contain 1.5 times the mass, yet are compressed to the size of a city. This is not a slow squeeze. This compression occurs when the stellar core explodes from its own mass... and it only takes a fraction of a second. Can anything stop this? Yes, there is a limit. Fracture stops when the density is exceeded. Which is comparable to 300 million tons compressed into something the size of a sugar cube.
The study of neutron stars opens up a whole new dimension of questions that scientists are seeking to answer. They want to know what causes star destruction, and how contraction can lead to explosion. They now suggest that neutrinos may be an important factor. These tiny elementary particles are created and removed in monumental quantities during the supernova process and may well act as the heating elements that trigger the explosion. According to the research team, neutrinos could transfer energy into the stellar gas, causing it to build up pressure. From here, a shock wave is created, and as it accelerates, it could rip apart the star and cause a supernova.
As plausible as this may sound, astronomers are not sure whether this theory could work or not. Because the supernova process cannot be recreated in a laboratory setting, and we are not able to directly see the interior of a supernova, we simply have to rely on computer simulations. Right now, researchers can recreate a supernova using complex mathematical equations that replicate the motion of stellar gas and the physical properties that occur at the critical moment of core destruction. These types of calculations require some of the most powerful supercomputers in the world, but it is also possible to use more simplified models to achieve the same results. "If, for example, the decisive influence of neutrinos were included in some detailed processing, computer simulations could be performed in only two dimensions, which means that the star in these models is assumed to have an artificial rotation around an axis of symmetry," the researcher reported. team.
With the support of Rechenzentrum Garching (RZG), scientists were able to create a singularly efficient and fast computer program. They were also given access to the most powerful supercomputers and were awarded computer time of almost 150 million processor hours, which is the largest quota so far granted by the European Union's "Partnership for Advanced Computing in Europe (PRACE)", a team of researchers at the Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics Garching could now, for the first time, model the processes of star destruction in three dimensions and with a detailed description of all the relevant physics.
“For this purpose, we used almost 16,000 processor cores in parallel, but nevertheless, “running” a single model requires about 4.5 months of continuous calculations,” says graduate student Florian Hanke, who performed this simulation. Only two computer centers in Europe were able to provide sufficiently powerful machines for such a long period of time, namely CURIE at Très Grand Center de calcul (TGCC) du CEA near Paris and SuperMUC at Leibniz-Rechenzentrum (LRZ) in Munich/Garching.
Turbulent evolution of a neutron star for six times (0.154, 0.223, 0.240, 0.245, 0.249 and 0.278 seconds) after the onset of neutron star formation in a 3D computer simulation. Mushroom-like bubbles are characteristic of the "boiling" of neutrino-heated gas, while the simultaneous SASI instability causes wild flopping and spinning movements of the entire neutrino-heated layer (red) and the enveloping supernova shock wave (blue). Photo credit: Elena Erastova and Markus Rampp, RZG.
Given several thousand billion bytes of data to model, it would take some time before researchers could fully understand the implications of the model runs. However, what they saw both delighted and surprised them. The stellar gas functioned in a manner very similar to normal convection, with neutrinos driving the heating process. And that's not all... They also discovered strong slapping movements that quickly progress to spinning movements. This behavior has been observed before and is called Standing Accretion Shock Instability (SASI). According to the news release, "This term expresses the fact that the initial spherical shape of a supernova shock wave spontaneously collapses because the shock wave develops a large amplitude, pulsating asymmetry by the oscillatory growth of initially small, random seed disturbances. So far, however, this has only been discovered in simplified and incomplete modeling."
“My colleague Thierry Foglizzo at the Service d’Astrophysique des CEA-Saclay near Paris obtained a detailed understanding of the conditions under which this instability grows,” explains Hans-Thomas Janka, head of the research team. "He constructed an experiment in which a hydraulic shock in a circular flow of water shows a pulsating asymmetry in close analogy with the shock wave front in the collapsing matter of a supernova core." Known as the Shallow Water Analogue of Shock Instability, the dynamical process can be demonstrated in a less technical manner by eliminating the important influence of neutrino heating - a reason that leads many astrophysicists to doubt that collapsing stars can go through this type of instability. However, new computer models may demonstrate that Standing Accretion Shock Instability is an important factor.
"This not only controls the movement of mass in the core of the supernova, but also imposes characteristic signatures of neutrino and neutrino emission that will be measurable for a future Galactic supernova. Moreover, this can lead to a strong asymmetry of the stellar explosion, from which the newly formed neutron star will receive a good boost and spin (rotation around an axis)" describes team member Bernhard Müller's most important consequences of such dynamic processes in the supernova core.
Are we done with supernova research? Have we understood everything that is known about neutron stars? Almost not. Currently, scientists are preparing to further investigate the measurable effects associated with SASI and improve their predictions of associated signals. In the future, they will advance their understanding by performing more and more simulations to uncover how neutrino heating and instability work together. Perhaps one day they will be able to show that this connection is the trigger that sets off a supernova explosion and gives rise to a neutron star.
